Numbers 1-3 Most civilizations used ' System used in three historical civilizations: 2 and System now used in 3 Modern Arabic N u m e r a l s 1, 2, a n d 3 c o m e f r o m But join when S Number of bars humans see as separate without counting Effect on early written notation? 0 2 6 UNIT 2B READING #SUPE TEXT 1 1 A numeral is a sign or symbol that represents a number. People have for many years been interested in the origin of such symbols. Take Roman numerals for instance. The first three numerals (I, Il and Il) use bar notation. This means that they follow the simple rule of containing as many bars as there are units. The numeral for four, IV, however, breaks the rule. Roman numerals are not alone in using this system. Ifrah (1998), in his book on the history of numerical notations, shows that in al civilisations, the first three numbers were initially denoted by repeatedly writing down the symbol for 'one, usually a bar, as many times as necessary. nI most civilizations, this was followed by a different symbol for four and beyond. Other examples of this are the Cuneiform numerals T. T. T and 7, used ni ancient Mesopotamia, and ancient Indian numerals (- = , and +). Today, the Chinese denote the numbers 1, 2 and 3 using one, two and three horizontal bars, yet they employ a different symbol for number .4 Even modern Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3etc.) derive from the same principle. The numeral for one is a single bar and the numerals for 2 and 3 derive from two and three horizontal bars that became joined together when they were hand written. 2 One theory that explains the evolution of numerals is subitization. Subitization is defined as the ability to determine the number of something without actually counting. Research has shown that subitizing becomes much more difficult after the number 3. In other words, humans can easily distinguish between the numerals ,I lI and Il but beyond this, bar notation becomes difficult and we are unable at a glance to accurately distinguish between, say, Il and IIIII. This difficulty may explain the effect on early notation, as 'new' numerals were created to make it easier for us to tell the difference between the numbers denoted.

Here’s a summary and analysis of the provided text regarding numeral systems and the concept of subitization. ### Summary: 1. **Numerals Definition**: - A numeral is a symbol that represents a number. - Historically, many civilizations have used bar notation for the first three numerals. 2. **Roman Numerals and Bar Notation**: - Roman numerals I, II, and III represent the numbers one to three using bars. - The numeral for four, IV, diverges from this bar system. - This pattern is found in other ancient civilizations, such as: - Cuneiform numerals in Mesopotamia. - Ancient Indian numerals. - Modern Chinese numerals for 1, 2, and 3 consist of horizontal bars, while a different symbol is used for four. - Modern Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) also originate from a similar principle, with the symbols for 2 and 3 representing two and three bars connected together. 3. **Concept of Subitization**: - Subitization is the ability to recognize the number of items in a small group without counting them. - Research indicates that humans can easily distinguish the numbers 1, 2, and 3, but it becomes difficult to differentiate larger quantities (e.g., noting the difference between II and IIIII). - This challenge has influenced the development of numeral systems, prompting the creation of new symbols to simplify number recognition as the quantity increases. ### Analysis: - **Historical Context**: - The text illustrates the evolution of numeral systems across cultures and time, focusing on the common use of bar notation for simplicity in representing early numbers. - **Cognitive Aspect**: - The concept of subitization adds a cognitive layer to the understanding of numerals, explaining why numeral systems might develop differently as humans encounter limitations in visual recognition. - **Evolution of Symbols**: - As civilizations advanced, the need for more complex numeric representation arose, leading to distinct symbols beyond the simple bar notation. - **Implications for Learning**: - Understanding numeral systems is crucial in educational contexts, particularly emphasizing how early cognitive abilities shape mathematical understanding. These points highlight the interconnectedness of numeral systems and cognitive psychology, showcasing how human perception influences the development and use of numerical notation throughout history.